For the integral equation $\mathrm{u}\left(\mathrm{x}\right)={\int }_{0}^{1}\mathrm{K}(\mathrm{x},\mathrm{y})\times \mathrm{u}\left(\mathrm{y}\right)\mathrm{d}\mathrm ...

The valuation of financial derivatives continues to evolve, with option pricing models remaining a cornerstone of modern quantitative finance. Traditional frameworks, such as the Black–Scholes model, ...